FASD

New research by Kautz-Turnbull, C., Rockhold, M., Speybroeck, E., Myers, J. & Petrenko, C.L.M. (2025) Preventing exclusionary discipline and adverse life experiences in FASD: Teachers' ability to recognize students with FASD in the classroom and develop and implement preventative strategies to support learning and behavior.

Shared and summarised by Kim Milne, Principal and Practice Advisor

FASD-CAN Inc. Aotearoa.

Summary:

The researchers wanted to understand two main things:

1. What stops teachers from recognising Fetal Alcohol Spectrum Disorder (FASD) in the classroom?

2. What actually works to support these students so they do not get stood down, suspended, or excluded from school?

To find out, they interviewed 23 experienced educators who have successfully supported students with FASD.

1.  Recognising FASD in the Classroom

The research highlights that in the absence of a formal diagnosis, experienced educators relied on a mix of professional intuition, pattern recognition, and close observation to identify students who likely had FASD.

Because FASD is a hidden disability, these teachers developed an 'eye' for specific clues and context cues. Here is how they identified these students in the classroom:

i. Having a Previous 'Benchmark' Student

The study found that once a teacher had taught at least one student with a confirmed diagnosis or known prenatal alcohol exposure (PAE), their understanding shifted entirely. They learned what FASD actually looked like in practice, which allowed them to recognise similar patterns in other undiagnosed children. Many teachers remarked that learning about FASD caused them to look back at past students and think, 'Ah, I probably had a lot of kids in my class who were impacted by this.'

ii. Paying Attention to Highly Vulnerable Groups

Experienced teachers learned to be extra mindful of signs of FASD when working with children in specific circumstances. They paid closer attention to:

• Children in foster care or kinship care.

• Children with a family history of substance use challenges.

• Students who already carried other labels, such as 'ADHD' or 'emotional/behavioural disorder', but whose struggles did not seem to fully match those diagnoses.

  
  

iii. Spotting a 'Spiky' or Patchy Skill Profile

Instead of a uniform learning delay, teachers noticed a highly uneven pattern of strengths and challenges. They identified students who might have excellent verbal or social motivation, but who had massive, unexpected gaps in basic everyday skills, such as:

• Telling the time or understanding the passage of time.

• Working with basic money concepts.

• Remembering and following multi-step instructions.

• Keeping track of their belongings (struggles with executive functioning).

  
  

iv. Observing Sudden Inconsistency

A major clue for educators was day-to-day inconsistency. A student might successfully complete a task on Monday, but be completely unable to do the exact same task on Tuesday. Rather than assuming the child was being difficult, experienced teachers recognised this fluctuation as a hallmark of neurodevelopmental fatigue and brain-based processing differences.

v. Recognising 'Masking' and Coping Behaviours

Rather than just seeing 'bad behaviour', teachers looked closer at why a student was disengaging. They noticed that students who were struggling but wanted to fit in with their peers would use subtle survival strategies, such as:

• Quietly copying their classmates to figure out what to do.

• Nodding and smiling when asked if they understood, even if they were completely lost.

• Shutting down, 'eloping' (leaving the room), or refusing to hand in work as a way to avoid looking like they were struggling.

  
  

vi. Relational Clues and Safe Disclosures

Finally, identification often came down to the relationships teachers built with families. Because of the intense vulnerability and fear of judgment surrounding PAE, caregivers rarely offered this information upfront. However, when teachers created a safe, non-judgmental space, biological parents or foster caregivers sometimes felt safe enough to share their history. For teachers, this disclosure was often the final piece of the puzzle that made the child's classroom struggles make complete sense.

2. The Big Picture: What the Research Found

FASD is a lifelong brain-based condition. Children with FASD have incredible strengths—they are often highly social, creative, determined, and caring. However, because their brains process information differently, traditional school environments can be overwhelming and difficult to navigate.

When schools do not understand FASD, they often use punishments like stand-downs or suspensions. The research shows that keeping kids out of class does not change their behaviour; instead, it harms their self-esteem, damages their trust, and can lead to them dropping out of school or getting into trouble with the law.

The Four Main Barriers to Getting Help

The study found four big reasons why tamariki with FASD go unsupported in school:

• A Missing Diagnosis: Most children with FASD do not have a formal diagnosis. This is often because clinics are scarce, waiting lists are long, and assessments are expensive. Without a 'paperwork label', schools struggle to provide extra help.

• Stigma and Fear: There is a lot of unfair shame and judgment around alcohol use during pregnancy. This makes caregivers feel incredibly vulnerable. Many parents worry that if they tell the school about potential exposure, they will be judged, blamed, or that state agencies like Oranga Tamariki (Ministry for Children) might get involved. Because of this fear, parents often keep this information private to protect their family.

• A 'Hidden' and Patchy Disability: You cannot see FASD. A child might be brilliant at art or have a great vocabulary, but really struggle with basic skills like telling the time, keeping track of their belongings, or managing their emotions. Because they are good at some things, teachers often mistake their struggles on other tasks as 'bad behaviour' or 'not trying'.

• 'Masking' (Hiding the Struggle): Children with FASD want to fit in. To avoid being teased or looking like they are struggling, they become experts at 'masking'. They might quietly copy other kids, smile and nod when they are confused, or shut down and refuse to do work rather than ask for help and risk looking 'dumb' in front of their friends.

  
  

3. What Works? The Four Pillars of Classroom Support

The experienced teachers in the study did not use fancy, expensive toolkits. Instead, they focused on four practical areas to help students feel safe and ready to learn:

Pillar 1: Adjust the Environment

Instead of expecting the child to change, teachers changed the classroom environment. They did this by:

• Using visual schedules (pictures showing what is happening next).

• Giving plenty of time to process instructions (waiting 10 seconds before asking for an answer).

• Offering regular, planned brain breaks (like going for a short walk before they get overwhelmed).

• Keeping instructions short and simple.

  
  

Pillar 2: Focus on the Relationship First

You cannot teach a child who does not feel safe. The best teachers prioritised building a strong, trusting bond with the student. When a child feels liked, valued, and understood for who they are, their stress levels drop, and they are much less likely to reach a breaking point.

Pillar 3: Reframe the Behaviour ('Can't' vs. 'Won't')

This is the most powerful shift a teacher or caregiver can make.

• Traditional view: 'He is refusing to do his maths work because he is being defiant and lazy.' (Won't)

• FASD-informed view: 'He has stopped writing because his brain is exhausted, the noise in the room is overwhelming, and he has forgotten the steps.' (Can't)

When we see behaviour as a symptom of a tired or overwhelmed brain rather than a bad attitude, we respond with support instead of punishment.

Pillar 4: Work Together as a Team

The best outcomes happen when teachers and caregivers work as equal partners.

• For teachers: This means listening to parents, valuing their lived experience, and validating how hard they work to advocate for their child. It also means educating other school staff about how FASD works (such as explaining that 'confabulation'—where a child makes up a story to fill a gap in their memory—is a brain struggle, not intentional lying).

• For caregivers: This means sharing what works best at home and working together to build a consistent routine between home and school.

  
  

4. Relevance of the research to Aotearoa New Zealand

The findings of this study hit very close to home. Families and educators in Aotearoa face these exact same challenges every day.

Systemic Challenges for Kiwi Whānau

• Diagnostic Deserts: Getting an FASD diagnosis in New Zealand is extremely difficult. Public pathways are nearly non-existent in many regions, and private assessments can cost thousands of dollars, leaving many vulnerable families completely locked out.

• Deep Vulnerability and Fear: Whānau in Aotearoa often face high levels of systemic stress. The fear of state judgment is real and heavy, particularly for Māori whānau who are disproportionately affected by systemic bias. When schools are not a safe, welcoming, and non-judgmental space, families cannot safely share their worries or their child's history, which leaves the child without the support they need.

  
  

Māori Equity and the School System

In our schools, Māori and Pasifika students, alongside those with learning differences, are stood down and suspended at much higher rates than other students.

• When a Māori student with undiagnosed FASD experiences a brain-overload response (like running out of the classroom or shouting), systemic bias can lead to this being labelled as 'cultural defiance' or 'gang-like behaviour'.

• Instead of receiving therapeutic support, they are often pushed out of school. This fuels the 'school-to-prison pipeline', where young people with unsupported brain differences end up in youth justice residences.

  
  

Connecting to Māori Values

To make schools safe for our kids, we can look to beautiful Māori pedagogical concepts that naturally align with the best FASD practices:

• Whanaungatanga (Relationship and Connection): Spending time building a genuine, warm connection between the teacher, the child, and the whānau before focusing on academic targets.

• Manaakitanga (Uplifting Mana): Protecting the dignity and self-worth of the student. Punitive discipline and public scoldings diminish a child's mana, whereas collaborative, calm problem-solving uplifts it.

  
  

Connecting to Pasifika Values

Similarly, Pasifika values offer powerful pathways for teachers and professionals to connect with and support Pacific students and their aiga:

• Vā (The Relational Space): In Pasifika cultures, the Vā is the sacred space between people. It is not empty space; it is what connects us. A teacher must actively nurture and respect the Vā between themselves, the student, and the aiga. When the Vā is kept positive and healthy, the child feels safe, respected, and protected from the stress of misunderstanding.

• Talanoa (Dialogue and Connection): Rather than formal, clinical meetings that can feel intimidating and high-stress for vulnerable families, schools should use Talanoa. This is the practice of sharing stories, building a connection, and talking from the heart without concealment. Talanoa breaks down the fear of authority and allows aiga and teachers to collaborate honestly.

• Aiga / Kāiga / Famili (The Collective): In Pasifika frameworks, a child does not exist in isolation—they are part of a wider collective. Support strategies must welcome and involve the wider family. When a school respects the collective wisdom of the aiga, the child experiences a consistent, loving village of support.

  
  

The Role of RTLBs and Learning Support Coordinators

Our schools have access to Resource Teachers: Learning and Behaviour (RTLB) and Learning Support Coordinators (LSC). However, because FASD is not officially recognised as a disability that qualifies for the Ongoing Resourcing Scheme (ORS) funding, schools are often left underfunded and exhausted. LSCs and RTLBs need specialised FASD training so they can support classroom teachers and prevent teacher burnout.

5. Summary of Recommendations for NZ Schools and Policy



Who

What needs to change?

Why?

The Government & Ministry

Officially recognise FASD as a disability to unlock school funding (like ORS).

To stop schools from running out of resources and to ease teacher burnout.

Teacher Training Providers

Make FASD-informed training mandatory for all new and existing teachers.

So teachers can support students proactively instead of learning through trial-by-fire.

Schools & Principals

Build safe, non-judgmental spaces where families can share their history without fear of state intervention or shame.

To break down stigma and build a trusting team around the child.

Health & Social Services

Connect paediatric health boards, social services (like Oranga Tamariki), and schools together.

To ensure children are supported early and kept out of the youth justice system.

___________________________

2.   The Conversation:  Adversity can follow NZ kids to the classroom. Can schools make a difference? 

Maryam Ghasemi, University of Auckland, Waipapa Taumata Rau; Ladan Hashemi, City St George's, University of London

A study tracking nearly 4,000 NZ children finds that, by eroding self-belief, adversity can leave them feeling less connected to school.

Published: June 30, 2026 7.54am NZST

Article based on this research

• Ghasemi, M., Meissel, K., McIntosh, T. et al. Understanding the Link Between Adverse Childhood Experiences (ACEs) and School Engagement: Investigating the Role of Child Self-concept as a Mediator. ADV RES SCI 7, 43 (2026). https://doi.org/10.1007/s42844-026-00229-z

• Hashemi, L., Ghasemi, M., Mellar, B., Gulliver, P., Milne, B., Langridge, F., … Swinburn, B. (2025). Associations between specific and cumulative adverse childhood experiences, childhood obesity, and obesogenic behaviours. European Journal of Psychotraumatology, 16(1). https://doi.org/10.1080/20008066.2025.2451480

By their eighth birthday, an estimated nine in ten New Zealand children will have experienced some form of serious adversity.

They might have been neglected, grown up with family violence, lived through a separation, or coped with a parent’s mental illness or substance use problem.

Outside the home, they might have been bullied – New Zealand has long reported some of the highest rates in the developed world – or grown up in families affected by ethnic discrimination.

Researchers collectively describe these as “adverse childhood experiences” or ACEs – a concept popularised by a landmark US study in the 1990s.

While typically discussed by health professionals, these experiences are also relevant to education as they can have important and lasting consequences for academic achievement.

Our newly published research, drawing on data from thousands of New Zealand children, provides an even clearer picture.

We found children who endured more adversity were more likely to become disconnected from learning and school by early adolescence. This pattern held even after accounting for factors such as gender and neighbourhood deprivation.

Because children engaged with school fare better in a range of areas later in life, it’s vital that we better understand the drivers at play – and what might be done to address them.

Our mission is to share knowledge and inform decisions.

Why adversity can make school harder

When a child faces more adversity, it weighs heavily on how they fare at school. Where research has been less clear is why that link exists.

To investigate this, we analysed data from almost 3,900 children in the longitudinal Growing Up in New Zealand study, tracking them from before they were born to age 12.

Rather than ask adults to remember events from their childhood years later, we tracked adversity as children grew up, using information from parents, children and standardised questionnaires.

We also looked at a wider range of adverse experiences than many previous studies, including bullying and ethnic discrimination as well as challenges at home.

To see how these experiences affected children at school, we measured how engaged they were with school, emotionally, behaviourally and academically.

We then looked at whether children’s self-esteem and how they viewed their own abilities as learners could explain the link between adversity and later school engagement.

It appeared to. Children who experienced more adversity tended to report lower self-esteem and less confidence in their abilities by age eight, which in turn was associated with lower levels of school engagement at age 12.

Overall, our findings suggest childhood adversity can undermine children’s confidence in themselves and their abilities. That can make them less likely to participate, persevere when learning becomes difficult, and stay engaged at school.

What’s more, we found the same pattern across Māori, Pacific, Asian and NZ European children, suggesting the findings apply across a wide range of backgrounds.

A window for intervention

Another of our findings has particularly important implications for schools.

Of the different forms of adversity we examined, bullying showed the strongest links with lower self-esteem, poorer academic self-concept and reduced school engagement.

Because bullying often happens at school, this highlights schools as a key place to intervene.

But our findings also suggest schools can do much more than prevent harm – they can actively help children build the confidence they need to stay engaged with learning and school.

We know that children who stay engaged at school are more likely to do well later in life. Those who disengage face a greater risk of lower academic achievement, poorer mental health and leaving school early.

To keep children connected to their school, supportive teachers, positive friendships, opportunities to succeed and extracurricular activities can all make a meaningful difference. So can giving students more say in their learning and recognising their achievements.

Ultimately, schools cannot undo the adversity a child has faced at home. But they can still do much to help children believe in themselves, thrive in the classroom and reach their potential.

Reference

Kautz-Turnbull, C., Rockhold, M., Speybroeck, E., Myers, J. & Petrenko, C.L.M. (2025) Preventing exclusionary discipline and adverse life experiences in FASD: Teachers' ability to recognize students with FASD in the classroom and develop and implement preventative strategies to support learning and behavior. Alcohol: Clinical and Experimental Research, 49, 1828–1838. Available from: https://doi.org/10.1111/acer.70100